Cytokines and the Brain

Cover

TOC$Table of Contents

Foreword

Preface

In Memoriam – Christopher P. Phelps, PhD

Obituary

List of Contributors

Part I. History

CH$Chapter 1 The History of Neuroimmune Biology

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. NEURAL REGULATION OF ALLERGY AND ASTHMA

3. NEUROENDOCRINE–IMMUNE INTERACTION

4. NEUROIMMUNE REGULATON IN HIGHER ORGANISMS

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

Part II. Cytokines in the Brain

Section A. Cytokines, their Receptors and Signal Transduction in the Brain

CH$Chapter 2 Cytokine Receptors in the Brain

ABSTRACT

1. BASAL AND INDUCED LEVELS OF CYTOKINES IN THE BRAIN

2. DISTRIBUTION OF CYTOKINE RECEPTORS

3. SIGNALING THROUGH CYTOKINE RECEPTORS IN THE BRAIN

4. FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF CYTOKINE AND CYTOKINE RECEPTORS IN THE BRAIN

5. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 3 Interleukin-1 and Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptors in the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. LOCALIZATION OF IL-1 RECEPTORS IN HYPOTHALAMUS

3. LOCALIZATION OF IL-1 RECEPTORS IN PITUITARY

4. MODULATION OF IL-1 RECEPTORS BY CRF IN THE HPA AXIS

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 4 Brain Interleukin-1ß Expression and Action in the Absence of Neuropathology

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. BRAIN IL-1ß EXPRESSION AND ACTION: CHARACTERISTICS AND PITFALLS

3. BRAIN IL-1ß AND RECEPTOR EXPRESSION DURING DEVELOPMENT

4. CONSTITUTIVE BRAIN EXPRESSION OF IL-1ß AND ITS RECEPTORS

5. ROLE OF CONSTITUTIVE BRAIN IL-1B IN LEARNING AND SLEEP REGULATION

6. BRAIN IL-1ß PRODUCTION AND ACTION DURING STRESS

7. BRAIN IL-1ß INDUCTION AND ACTION DURING THE ACUTE PHASE RESPONSE

8. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 5 Interleukin-1ß Signal Transduction via the Sphingomyelin Pathway in Brain Cells

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE SPHINGOMYELIN PATHWAY OF INTERLEUKIN-1ß SIGNALING

3. ACTIVATION OF NEUTRAL SPHINGOMYELINASE AND THE NECESSITY OF INTERLEUKIN-1ß RECEPTOR TYPE I FOR SIGNALING NERVE CELLS

4. CHANGES IN NEUTRAL SPHINGOMYELINASE ACTIVITY IN MEMBRANES OF NERVE AND IMMUNE-COMPETENT CELLS UNDER STRESS

5. MODULATORY EFFECTS OF GLUCOCORTICOID HORMONES AND SHORT PEPTIDES ON THE ACTIVITY OF NEUTRAL SPHINGOMYELINASE

6. INTERLEUKIN-1ß SIGNALING THROUGH THE SPHINGOMYELIN PATHWAY IN ASTROCYTES

7. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 6 Blood–Brain Barrier Transport of Cytokines

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. BLOOD-TO-BRAIN TRANSPORT

3. BRAIN-TO-BLOOD TRANSPORT

4. BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS OF CYTOKINES AND THE BBB

5. SPECIES SPECIFICITY

6. PHYSIOLOGICAL ALTERATIONS

7. PATHOLOGICAL ALTERATIONS IN TRANSPORT

8. OTHER CYTOKINE–BBB INTERACTIONS

9. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Section B. Cytokines in Brain Physiology

CH$Chapter 7 Cytokines in Synaptic Function

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

3. TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-a

4. INTERLEUKINS

5. INTERFERONS

6. CHEMOKINES

7. IMPLICATIONS FOR DISEASES

8. G-PROTEINS

9. CONCLUDING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 8 Interleukin-2 as a Neuroregulatory Cytokine

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. IL-2 AND IL-15: TWO CYTOKINES SHARING A HETEROMERIC RECEPTOR COMPLEX

3. EXPRESSION OF IL-2, IL-15, AND THEIR RECEPTORS IN THE CNS

4. EFFECTS ON NEURAL CELL GROWTH, SURVIVAL, AND DIFFERENTIATION

5. EFFECTS ON THE FIRING ACTIVITY AND THE RELEASE PROPERTIES OF NEURONS

6. NEUROPATHOLOGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC IMPLICATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 9 Cytokines and Extracellular Matrix Remodeling in the Central Nervous System

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ECM LOCALIZATION IN BRAIN

3. CNS-ECM MAIN MOLECULAR CLASSES AND COMPOSITION

4. FUNCTIONAL INVOLVEMENT OF ECM MOLECULES IN SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

5. ECM–CYTOKINES AND GROWTH FACTORS IN CNS INJURY

6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 10 Acidic Fibroblast Growth Factor, a Satiety Substance, with Diverse Physiological Significance

ABSTRACT

1. INCREASE IN FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR IN CEREBROSPINAL FLUID AFTER FEEDING

2. EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES TO AFGF AND BFGF ON FOOD INTAKE

3. FGF EFFECTS ON LHA AND VMH NEURONS

4. SOURCE OF aFGF IN THE BRAIN

5. GLUCOSE SENSOR OF A NEW TYPE IN THE BRAIN

6. aFGF AND MEMORY FACILITATION

7. PERSPECTIVES

8. ACTIVATION OF AFGF ON HYPOTHALAMIC–PITUITARY–ADRENOCORTICAL AXIS

9. EFFECTS OF AFGF AND ITS FRAGMENTS ON PHAGOCYTOSIS IN MOUSE PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES

10. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 11 Cytokines and Sleep

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SLEEP

3. CYTOKINES AND SLEEP

4. ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT EXPRESSION OF CYTOKINE SRSs

5. BRAIN ORGANIZATION OF SLEEP

6. ROLE OF CYTOKINES IN EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE THEORY

7. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Section C. Chemokines in the Brain

CH$Chapter 12 Chemokines, their Receptors and Significance in Brain Function

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMOKINES AND CHEMOKINE RECEPTORS

3. SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

4. EXPRESSION OF CHEMOKINE AND THEIR RECEPTORS IN THE BRAIN: CELLULAR LOCALIZATION AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES

5. CHEMOKINES IN BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

6. CHEMOKINE AND CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR INVOLVEMENT IN BRAIN PATHOLOGIES

REFERENCES

Part III. Immune Response in the Brain

CH$Chapter 13 Immune and Inflammatory Responses in the Central Nervous System: Modulation by Astrocytes

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ASTROCYTES IN THE NORMAL BRAIN

3. REACTIVE ASTROGLIOSIS

4. ASTROCYTES AND CYTOKINES

5. ASTROCYTES AND OXIDATIVE STRESS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 14 Immune Response in the Brain: Glial Response and Cytokine Production

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GLIAL RESPONSE TO INTERACT WITH IMMUNE CELLS

3. CYTOKINE PRODUCTION AND EXPRESSION OF RECEPTORS FOR CYTOKINES IN GLIA CELLS

4. CYTOKINE NETWORKS IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

5. CYTOKINES IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PATHOLOGIES

REFERENCES

Part IV. Cytokines in Pathophysiological Brain Responses

Section A. Brain–Immune Interaction

CH$Chapter 15 Lymphocytes and Adrenergic Sympathetic Nerves: The Role of Cytokines

ABSTRACT

ABBREVIATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. INNERVATION OF LYMPHOID ORGANS

3. EXPRESSION OF ARS ON LYMPHOCYTES

4. EFFECT OF ADRENERGIC STIMULATION ON T LYMPHOCYTES

5. EFFECT OF ADRENERGIC STIMULATION ON B LYMPHOCYTES

6. EFFECT OF ADRENERGIC STIMULATION ON NATURAL KILLER CELLS

7. EFFECT OF DEPLETION OF NORADRENERGIC INNERVATION ON LYMPHOCYTES

8. EFFECTS OF CYTOKINES ON THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

9. CATECHOLAMINE SYNTHESIS BY LYMPHOCYTES

10. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 16 Cytokines in Neural Signaling to the Brain

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CRANIAL NERVE VISCEROSENSORY PATHWAYS: NEURAL SURVEILLANCE OF PATHOGEN INTERFACES

3. CYTOKINES IN SPINAL AND TRIGEMINAL NERVES AND PAIN MODULATION

4. CENTRAL PROJECTIONS OF CYTOKINE-RESPONSIVE NERVES: INTERFACE WITH BRAIN REGIONS SUBSERVING SICKNESS RESPONSES

5. PERSPECTIVES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 17 Interleukin-2 Gene Expression in Central Nervous System Cells after Stress and Antigen Application

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. INTERLEUKIN-2 AS AN ENDOGENOUS CYTOKINE OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

3. INTERLEUKIN-2 GENE EXPRESSION IN BRAIN CELLS OF RATS EXPOSED TO STRESS

4. EXPRESSION OF C-FOS AND INTERLEUKIN-2 GENES IN BRAIN CELLS AFTER INJECTION OF ANTIGEN

5. EXPRESSION OF C-FOS AND INTERLEUKIN-2 GENES BY BRAIN CELLS OF RATS AFTER THE APPLICATION OF AN IMMUNOMODULATING PEPTIDES

6. THE POSSIBLE PATHWAYS OF TRANSMISSION OF INTERLEUKIN-2 SIGNALS INTO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM CELLS

7. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 18 Sex Hormones and Cytokines in Central Nervous System Pathology and Repair

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. EFFECTS OF STERIOD HORMONES IN CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFLAMMATION

3. REGULATION OF INFLAMMATORY MEDIATORS BY SEX STEROIDS

4. STEROID HORMONES AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM REPAIR

5. NEUROSTEROIDOGENESIS

6. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 19 Involvement of Brain Cytokines in Stress-induced Immunosuppression

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CYTOKINE EXPRESSION IN THE BRAIN DURING INFLAMMATORY STRESS

3. IMMUNOSUPPRESSION INDUCED BY BRAIN CYTOKINES

4. ROLE OF BRAIN CYTOKINES IN THE IMMOBILIZATION-INDUCED IMMUNOSUPPRESSION

5. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 20 Neuroprotective Effects of Inflammation in the Nervous System

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE PROTECTIVE ROLE OF MACROPHAGES

3. THE PROTECTIVE ROLE OF T CELLS

4. ANTIBODIES AS MEDIATORS OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM REPAIR

5. THE DUAL ROLE OF PROINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES

6. SECRETION OF NEUROTROPHIC FACTORS BY INFLAMMATORY CELLS

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Part V. Disease

CH$Chapter 21 Brain Response to Endotoxin

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE-INDUCED SIGNALING PATHWAYS

3. THE ACUTE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

4. EPITHELIAL AND ENDOTHELIAL BARRIERS

5. BARRIER RESPONSES TO LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 22 Cytokines in Demyelinating Diseases

ABSTRACT

1. CYTOKINE EXPRESSION DURING MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL AUTOIMMUNE ENCEPHALITIS

2. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 23 The Cytokines and Depression Hypothesis: An Evaluation

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ORIGINS OF THE CYTOKINE HYPOTHESIS OF DEPRESSION

3. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE CYTOKINE HYPOTHESIS OF DEPRESSION

4. ARE SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION OBSERVED IN SICK ANIMALS?

5. THE POTENTIAL ROLE IN SICKNESS BEHAVIOR OF CYTOKINES IN THE BRAIN

6. EFFECTS OF ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENTS ON SICKNESS BEHAVIOR

7. CYTOKINE ACTIVATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMIC–PITUITARY–ADRENOCORTICAL AXIS: RELATIONSHIP TO DEPRESSION

8. CYTOKINES AND BRAIN CATECHOLAMINES

9. THE VALUE OF CYTOKINE-INDUCED SICKNESS BEHAVIOR AS A MODEL FOR THE STUDY OF DEPRESSION

10. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 24 Clinical Relevance: Cytokines in Alzheimer’s Disease

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CYTOKINES

3. CYTOKINE RECEPTORS

4. INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING AND CYTOKINES

5. NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND CYTOKINES

6. OXIDATIVE FREE RADICALS, AGING, AND INFLAMMATION IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

7. NEUROPATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

8. SPECULATIONS ON THE CAUSE, TREATMENT, AND PREVENTION OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

REFERENCES

Part VI. Cytokines and Behavior

CH$Chapter 25 Cytokines and Immune-Related Behaviors

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. HOST RESPONSE TO INFECTION AND INFLAMMATION

3. NONSPECIFIC SYMPTOMS AS ADAPTIVE RESPONSES TO INFECTION AND INFLAMMATION

4. SICKNESS AS A MOTIVATIONAL STATE: THE FLEXIBILITY OF IMMUNE-RELATED BEHAVIORS

5. SICKNESS AND INFORMATION PROCESSING: THE SICK ANIMAL IN ITS ENVIRONMENT

6. EVOLUTIONARY ROOTS OF IMMUNE-RELATED BEHAVIORS

7. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CH$Chapter 26 The Production and Effects of Cytokines Depend on Brain Lateralization

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. EFFECTS OF UNILATERAL BRAIN LESIONS ON IMMUNITY AND CYTOKINE PRODUCTION

3. EFFECTS OF FUNCTIONAL LATERALIZATION ON IMMUNITY AND CYTOKINE PRODUCTION

4. INFLUENCE OF LATERALIZATION ON THE EFFECTS OF CYTOKINES

5. BRAIN–IMMUNE PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN LATERALIZED CONTROL OF CYTOKINE PRODUCTION

6. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

REFERENCES

Part VII. Conclusions

CH$Chapter 27 Concluding Remarks

IDX$Subject Index