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Contents
11
Acknowledgments
24
1 INTRODUCTION
25
1.1 DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS
26
1.2 ACTIVE STABILITY CONTROLSYSTEMS
26
1.3 RIDE QUALITY
28
1.4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADDRESSING TRAFFIC CONGESTION
29
1.4.1 Automated highway systems
30
1.4.2 "Traffic-friendly"adaptive cruise control
30
1.4.3 Narrow tilt-controlled commuter vehicles
31
1.5 EMISSIONS AND FUEL ECONOMY
33
1.5.1 Hybrid electric vehicles
34
1.5.2 Fuel cell vehicles
35
REFERENCES
35
2 LATERAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS
38
2.1 LATERAL SYSTEMS UNDER COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT
38
2.1.1 Lane departure warning
39
2.1.2 Lane keeping systems
40
2.1.3 Yaw stability control systems
41
2.2 KINEMATIC MODEL OF LATERAL VEHICLE MOTION
43
2.3 BICYCLE MODEL OF LATERAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS
50
2.4 MOTION OFA PARTICLE RELATIVE TO A ROTATING FRAME
56
2.5 DYNAMIC MODEL IN TERMS OF ERROR WITH RESPECT TO ROAD
58
2.6 DYNAMIC MODEL IN TERMS OF YAW RATE AND SLIPANGLE
62
2.7 FROM BODY FIXED TO GLOBAL COORDINATES
64
2.8 ROAD MODEL
66
2.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY
69
NOMENCLATURE
70
REFERENCES
71
3 STEERING CONTROL FOR AUTOMATED LANE KEEPING
73
3.1 STATE FEEDBACK
73
3.2 STEADY STATE ERROR FROM DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
77
3.3 UNDERSTANDING STEADY STATE CORNERING
81
3.3.1 Steering angle for steady state cornering
81
3.3.2 Can the yaw-angleerror be zero ?
86
3.3.3 Is non-zero yaw angle error a concern ?
87
3.4 CONSIDERATION OF VARYING LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY
88
3.5 OUTPUT FEEDBACK
90
3.6 UNITY FEEDBACK LOOP SYSTEM
92
3.7 LOOP ANALYSIS WITH A PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
94
3.8 LOOP ANALYSIS WITH A LEAD COMPENSATOR
101
3.9 SIMULATION OF PERFORMANCE WITH LEAD COMPENSATOR
105
3.10 ANALYSIS OF CLOSED-LOOPPERFORMANCE
106
3.10.1 Performance variation with vehicle speed
106
3.10.2 Performance variation with sensor location
108
3.11 COMPENSATOR DESIGN WITH LOOK-AHEAD SENSOR MEASUREMENT
110
3.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
112
NOMENCLATURE
112
REFERENCES
114
4 LONGITUDINAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS
116
4.1 LONGITUDINALVEHICLE DYNAMICS
116
4.1.1 Aerodynamic drag force
118
4.1.2 Longitudinal tire force
120
4.1.3 Why does longitudinal tire force depend on slip ?
122
4.1.4 Rolling resistance
125
4.1.5 Calculation of normal tire forces
127
4.1.6 Calculation of effective tire radius
129
4.2 DRIVELINE DYNAMICS
132
4.2.1 Torque converter
133
4.2.2 Transmission dynamics
135
4.2.3 Engine dynamics
137
CHAPTER SUMMARY
141
NOMENCLATURE
141
REFERENCES
143
5 INTRODUCTION TO LONGITUDINAL CONTROL
144
5.1 INTRODUCTION
144
5.1.1 Adaptive cruise control
145
5.1.2 Collision avoidance
146
5.1.3 Automated highway systems
146
5.2 BENEFITS OF LONGITUDINALAUTOMATION
147
5.3 CRUISE CONTROL
149
5.4 UPPER LEVEL CONTROLLER FOR CRUISE CONTROL
151
5.5 LOWER LEVEL CONTROLLER FOR CRUISE CONTROL
154
5.5.1 Engine Torque Calculation for Desired Acceleration
155
5.5.2 Engine Control
158
5.6 ANTI-LOCK BRAKE SYSTEMS
158
5.6.1 Motivation
158
5.6.2 ABS Functions
162
5.6.3 Deceleration Threshold Based Algorithms
163
5.6.4 Other Logic Based ABS Control Systems
167
5.6.5 Recent Research Publications on ABS
169
5.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
169
NOMENCLATURE
170
REFERENCES
171
6 ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL
174
6.1 INTRODUCTION
174
6.2 VEHICLE FOLLOWING SPECIFICATIONS
176
6.3 CONTROLARCHITECTURE
177
6.4 STRING STABILITY
179
6.5 AUTONOMOUS CONTROL WITH CONSTANT SPACING
180
6.6 AUTONOMOUS CONTROL WITH THE CONSTANT TIME-GAPPOLICY
183
6.6.1 String stability of the CTG spacing policy
185
6.6.2 Typical delay values
188
6.7 TRANSITIONAL TRAJECTORIES
190
6.7.1 The need for a transitional controller
190
6.7.2 Transitional controller design through diagrams
193
6.8 LOWER LEVEL CONTROLLER
199
6.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY
201
NOMENCLATURE
201
REFERENCES
202
APPENDIX 6.A
204
7 LONGITUDINAL CONTROL FOR VEHICLE PLATOONS
208
7.1 AUTOMATED HIGHWAY SYSTEMS
208
7.2 VEHICLE CONTROL ON AUTOMATED HIGHWAY SYSTEMS
209
7.3 LONGITUDINAL CONTROLARCHITECTURE
210
7.4 VEHICLE FOLLOWING SPECIFICATIONS
212
7.5 BACKGROUND ON NORMS OF SIGNALSAND SYSTEMS
214
7.5.1 Norms of signals
214
7.5.2 System norms
215
7.6 DESIGN APPROACH FOR ENSURING STRING STABILITY
219
7.7 CONSTANT SPACING WITH AUTONOMOUS CONTROL
221
7.8 CONSTANT SPACING WITH WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
224
7.9 EXPERIMENTALRESULTS
227
7.10 LOWER LEVEL CONTROLLER
229
7.11 ADAPTIVE CONTROL FOR UNKNOWN VEHICLE PARAMETERS
230
7.11.1 Redefined notation
230
7.11.2 Adaptive controller
232
7.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
235
NOMENCLATURE
236
REFERENCES
237
APPENDIX 7.A
239
8 ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL
241
8.1 INTRODUCTION
241
8.1.1 The functioning of a stability control system
241
8.1.2 Systems developed by automotive manufacturers
243
8.1.3 Types of stability control systems
243
8.2 DIFFERENTIAL BRAKING SYSTEMS
244
8.2.1 Vehicle model
244
8.2.2 Control architecture
249
8.2.3 Desired yaw rate
250
8.2.4 Desired side-slip angle
251
8.2.5 Upper bounded values of target yaw rate and slip angle
253
8.2.6 Upper controller design
255
8.2.7 Lower controller design
258
8.3 STEER-BY-WIRESYSTEMS
260
8.3.1 Introduction
260
8.3.2 Choice of output for decoupling
261
8.3.3 Controller Design
264
8.4 INDEPENDENT ALL WHEEL DRIVE TORQUE DISTRIBUTION
267
8.4.1 Traditional four wheel drive systems
267
8.4.2 Torque transfer between left and right wheels using
268
8.4.3 Active Control of Torque Transfer To All Wheels
269
8.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
271
NOMENCLATURE
272
REFERENCES
275
9 MEAN VALUE MODELING OF SI AND DIESEL ENGINES
277
9.1 SI ENGINE MODEL USING PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
278
9.1.1 Engine rotational dynamics
279
9.1.2 Indicated combustion torque
280
9.1.3 Friction and pumping losses
281
9.1.4 Manifold pressure equation
282
9.1.5 Outflow rate from intake manifold
283
9.1.6 Inflow rate into intake manifold
283
9.2 SI ENGINE MODEL USING LOOK-UP MAPS
285
9.2.1 Introduction to engine maps
286
9.2.2 Second order engine model using engine maps
290
9.2.3 First order engine model using engine maps
291
9.3 INTRODUCTION TO TURBOCHARGED DIESEL ENGINES
293
9.4 MEAN VALUE MODELING OF TURBOCHARGED DIESEL ENGINES
294
9.4.1 Intake manifold dynamics
295
9.4.2 Exhaust manifold dynamics
295
9.4.3 Turbocharger dynamics
296
9.4.4 Engine crankshaft dynamics
297
9.4.5 Control system objectives
298
9.5 LOWER LEVEL CONTROLLER WITH SI ENGINES
299
CHAPTER SUMMARY
301
NOMENCLATURE
302
REFERENCES
304
10 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF PASSIVE AUTOMOTIVE SUSPENSIONS
306
10.1 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE SUSPENSIONS
306
10.1.1 Full, half and quarter car suspension models
306
10.1.2 Suspensionfunctions
308
10.1.3 Dependent and independent suspensions
310
10.2 MODAL DECOUPLING
312
10.3 PERFORMANCE VARIABLES FOR A QUARTER CAR SUSPENSION
314
10.4 NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND MODE SHAPES FOR THE QUARTER CAR
316
10.5 APPROXIMATE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS USING DECOUPLING
318
10.6 ANALYSIS OF VIBRATIONS IN THE SPRUNG MASS MODE
324
10.7 ANALYSIS OF VIBRATIONS IN THE UNSPRUNG MASS MODE
326
10.8 VERIFICATION USING THE COMPLETE QUARTER CAR MODEL
327
10.8.1 Verification of the influence of suspension stiffness
327
10.8.2 Verification of the influence of suspension damping
329
10.8.3 Verification of the influence of tire stiffness
332
10.9 HALF-CAR AND FULL-CAR SUSPENSION MODELS
334
10.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY
340
NOMENCLATURE
341
REFERENCES
342
11 ACTIVE AUTOMOTIVE SUSPENSIONS
343
11.1 INTRODUCTION
343
11.2 ACTIVE CONTROL :TRADE-OFFS AND LIMITATIONS
346
11.2.1 Transfer functions of interest
346
11.2.2 Use of the LQR formulation and its Relation to optimal control
346
11.2.3 LQR formulation for active suspension design
348
11.2.4 Performance studies of the LQR controller
350
11.3 ACTIVE SYSTEM ASYMPTOTES
357
11.4 INVARIANT POINTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE SUSPENSION PROBLEM
359
11.5 ANALYSIS OF TRADE-OFFS USING INVARIANT POINTS
361
11.5.1 Ride quality1road holding trade-offs
362
11.5.2 Ride quality1rattle space trade-offs
363
11.6 CONCLUSIONS ON ACHIEVABLE ACTIVE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
364
11.7 PERFORMANCE OFA SIMPLE VELOCITY FEEDBACK CONTROLLER
366
11.8 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS FOR ACTIVE SUSPENSIONS
368
11.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY
370
NOMENCLATURE
371
REFERENCES
372
12 SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSIONS
374
12.1 INTRODUCTION
374
12.2 SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION MODEL
376
12.3 THEORETICAL RESULTS: OPTIMAL SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSIONS
379
12.3.1 Problem formulation
379
12.3.2 Problem definition
381
12.3.3 Optimal solution with no constraints on damping
382
12.3.4 Optimal solution in the presence of constraints
385
12.4 INTERPRETATION OF THE OPTIMAL SEMI-ACTIVE CONTROL LAW
386
12.5 SIMULATION RESULTS
389
12.6 CALCULATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION PLOTS WITH SEMI-ACTIVE SYSTEMS
392
12.7 PERFORMANCE OF SEMI-ACTIVESYSTEMS
395
12.7.1 Moderately weighted ride quality
395
12.7.2 Sky hook damping
397
12.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY
400
NOMENCLATURE
400
REFERENCES
401
13 LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL TIRE FORCES
403
13.1 TIRE FORCES
403
13.2 TIRE STRUCTURE
406
13.3 LONGITUDINALTIRE FORCE AT SMALL SLIP RATIOS
407
13.4 LATERAL TIRE FORCE AT SMALL SLIP ANGLES
411
13.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE MAGIC FORMULA TIRE MODEL
414
13.6 DEVELOPMENT OF LATERAL TIRE MODEL FOR UNIFORM NORMAL FORCE DISTRIBUTION
416
13.6.1 Lateral forces at small slip angles
418
13.6.2 Lateral forces at large slip angles
421
13.7 DEVELOPMENT OF LATERAL TIRE MODEL FOR PARABOLIC NORMAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
425
13.8 COMBINED LATERALAND LONGITUDINAL TIRE FORCE GENERATION
433
13.9 THE MAGIC FORMULA TIRE MODEL
437
13.10 DUGOFF'S TIRE MODEL
441
13.10.1 Introduction
441
13.10.2 Model equations
442
13.10.3 Friction circle interpretation of Dugoff's model
443
13.11 DYNAMIC TIRE MODEL
445
13.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
446
NOMENCLATURE
446
REFERENCES
448
14 TIRE-ROAD FRICTION MEASUREMENT ON HIGHWAY VEHICLES
449
14.1 INTRODUCTION
449
14.1.1 Definition of tire-road friction coefficient
449
14.1.2 Benefits of tire-roadfriction estimation
450
14.1.3 Review of results on tire-road friction coefficient estimation
451
14.1.4 Review of results on slip-slope based approach to friction estimation
452
14.2 LONGITUDINAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS AND
454
14.2 TIRE MODELFOR FRICTION ESTIMATION
454
14.2.1 Vehicle longitudinal dynamics
454
14.2.2 Determination of the normal force
455
14.2.3 Tire model
456
14.2.4 Friction coefficient estimation for both traction and braking
458
14.3 SUMMARY OF LONGITUDINAL FRICTION IDENTIFICATIONAPPROACH
462
14.4 IDENTIFICATION ALGORITHM DESIGN
463
14.4.1 Recursive least-squares (RLS) identification
463
14.4.2 RLS with gain switching
465
14.4.3 Conditions for parameter updates
466
14.5 ESTIMATION OF ACCELEROMETER BIAS
467
14.6 EXPERIMENTALRESULTS
470
14.6.1 System hardware and software
470
14.6.2 Tests on dry concrete road surface
471
14.6.3 Tests on concrete surface with loose snow covering
473
14.6.4 Tests on surface consistingof two different friction levels
475
14.6.5 Hard braking test
476
14.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
477
NOMENCLATURE
478
REFERENCES
480
Index
482
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