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Units of Measurement - Past, Present and Future. International System of Units
von: S. V. Gupta
Springer-Verlag, 2009
ISBN: 9783642007385 , 170 Seiten
Format: PDF, OL
Kopierschutz: Wasserzeichen
Preis: 128,39 EUR
Preface
7
Contents
9
Acronyms
15
1 Metrology Through Ages
18
1.1 Introduction
18
1.2 History of Metrology in India
19
1.2.1 Legal Metrology
19
1.2.2 Town Planning
19
1.2.3 Length Measurements
19
1.2.4 Time Measurements
20
Time Intervals
20
Sidereal Metrics
22
Smaller Units of Time Used in the Vedas
22
Lunar Metrics
22
Tropical Metrics
23
Reckoning of Time Among Other Entities
23
Counting of Time
25
Time Scale in Seconds
26
1.2.5 Units of Time and Angle
27
1.2.6 Mass Measurement
27
For Trade in Food Grains and Similar Items
27
For Gold Trade
27
For Silver Trade
28
1.2.7 Volume Measurements
28
1.2.8 Numeration
29
References
30
Further Readings
30
2 System of Quantities and Units
32
2.1 Quantities
32
2.2 System of Quantities
33
2.2.1 Quantity
33
2.2.2 Base Quantity
33
2.2.3 System of Base Quantities
33
2.2.4 Derived Quantity
33
2.2.5 Quantity Equation
34
2.3 Measurement Unit
34
2.3.1 System of Measurement Units
35
2.3.2 System of Base Units
35
Properties of Base Units
35
Minimum Number of Base Units
35
2.3.3 Derived Unit
36
2.3.4 Unit Equation
36
2.3.5 Properties of Units of Measurement
37
2.3.6 Coherent Derived Unit
37
2.4 Quantity of Dimension 1 or Dimensionless Quantity
38
2.4.1 Dimension of a Quantity
38
2.4.2 Quantities of Dimension 1 or Dimensionless Quantities
39
2.4.3 Ordinal Quantity
40
2.4.4 Quantity Scale, Measurement Scale
40
2.4.5 Ordinal Quantity Scale, Ordinal Scale
40
2.4.6 Nominal Property
41
2.5 Conversion Factor Between Units
41
2.6 Quantity Relations
41
2.6.1 Quantity Value
41
2.6.2 Numerical Quantity Value
42
2.6.3 Quantity Calculus
43
2.7 Units Used in Biology Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Forensic Science for Biological Effects
43
2.7.1 Photochemical or Photo-biological Quantitiesand Their Units
43
2.8 Units Used in Photometry
44
2.8.1 Photometry
44
2.8.2 Actinic Action Spectrum
45
2.8.3 Types of Visions
45
2.9 Unit in the Field of Sound
45
2.10 Units in the Field of Ionizing Radiations
46
2.11 SI Units in the Framework of General Relativity
46
References
46
3 Various Systems of Units
48
3.1 Introduction
48
3.2 Relations Between the Quantities
48
3.2.1 Derived Quantities by Definition
49
3.2.2 Derived Quantities by a Phenomenon
51
3.3 Three-Dimensional Systems of Units
53
3.3.1 Gauss System
53
3.3.2 CGS System
53
3.3.3 FPS System
54
3.4 Four-Dimensional Systems of Units
56
3.4.1 Giorgi System
56
3.4.2 Maxwell System
56
3.4.3 Hartree System
56
3.4.4 Units for Atomic and Molecular Measurements
57
3.4.5 McWeeny System
57
3.4.6 Ohm, Ampere, Second and Metre System
57
3.4.7 Force, Length and Time System
57
3.4.8 System in Terms of Universal Constants (G, H, E and Q)
58
3.4.9 System in Terms of Electric Charge, Flux,Length and Time
59
3.4.10 System in Terms of L, M, T and R
59
3.5 Derived Quantities in Terms of L, M, T and R: An Example
61
References
62
4 Metre Convention and Evolution of Base Units
63
4.1 BIPM and Metre Convention
63
4.1.1 General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)
63
4.1.2 International Committee for Weightsand Measures (CIPM)
64
4.1.3 Consultative Committees
64
Consultative Committee for Electricity and Magnetism (CCEM)
64
Consultative Committee for Photometry and Radiometry (CCPR)
65
Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT)
65
Consultative Committee for Length (CCL)
65
Consultative Committee for Time and Frequency (CCTF)
65
Consultative Committee for Ionizing Radiation (CCRI)
65
Consultative Committee for Units (CCU)
65
Consultative Committee for Mass and Related Quantities (CCM)
65
Consultative Committee for Amount of Substance: Metrology in Chemistry (CCQM)
66
Consultative Committee for Acoustics, Ultrasound and Vibration(CCAUV)
66
4.1.4 International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
66
Scientific Activities
66
Objects of BIPM
66
Staff at BIPM
67
Publications
67
Metrologia
67
4.1.5 Linkages of Various Organs of Metre Convention
67
4.2 International System of Units (SI)
68
4.2.1 Base Units
69
4.3 Evolution of Base Units
69
4.3.1 Unit of Length
71
4.3.2 Unit of Mass
74
International Prototype of Kilogram
74
4.3.3 Unit of Time
76
4.3.4 Unit of Electric Current
77
4.3.5 Unit of Luminous Intensity
77
4.3.6 Unit of Temperature
78
Unit of Thermodynamic Temperature (Kelvin)
79
4.3.7 Unit of Amount of Substance (Mole)
80
4.3.8 Dependence of Base Units
81
References
81
5 Realization of Base Units
82
5.1 The Metre
82
5.1.1 Standard Radiations
83
5.2 The Kilogram
84
5.2.1 Method of Cleaning
84
Cleaning with Chamois Leather
84
Cleaning with Steam
85
Efficacy of the Cleaning Procedure
86
5.2.2 Uncertainty in National Standards
86
5.3 The Second
87
5.4 The Ampere
87
5.4.1 Josephson and Klitzing Constants
88
5.4.2 Values of Josephson and Klitzing Constants
88
5.5 The Candela
88
5.6 The Kelvin
89
5.6.1 Triple Point of Water
89
5.6.2 Temperature Scales
90
5.6.3 ITS-90
90
Defining Fixed Points on ITS-90
90
ITS-90 and PLTS-2000
91
Defining Fixed Points on PLTS-2000
92
5.7 The Mole
93
References
94
6 Derived Quantities and Their Units
95
6.1 Derived Quantities
95
6.2 Units of Derived Quantities
95
6.3 SI Derived Units
96
6.3.1 Units Expressed in Terms of Base Units
96
6.3.2 Derived Units with Special Names
97
6.3.3 Derived Units Formed from the Derived Units with Special Names
97
6.3.4 Derived Quantities of Dimension 1
97
6.4 Units Outside the SI
103
6.4.1 Units Accepted for Use with the SI
103
6.4.2 Non-SI Units with Experimentally Obtained Values
103
6.4.3 Non-SI Units Used by Special Groups
104
6.4.4 Other Non-SI Units with Special Names
105
6.4.5 Other Non-SI Units Found in the Old Literature
107
References
108
7 Expressing SI Units
109
7.1 Introduction
109
7.2 SI Prefixes
109
7.2.1 Rules for Using SI Prefixes
109
7.2.2 Prefix About the Kilogram
111
7.3 Writing of SI Unit Symbols
111
7.3.1 Unit Symbols and Their Combinations
111
7.3.2 Names of Units
112
7.3.3 Quantity Calculus
113
Value of Quantity
113
Numerical Value of a Given Quantity
113
Formatting the Value of a Quantity
113
Symbols of Quantities
114
Quantity Symbols and Unit Symbols
114
7.3.4 Stating Values of Quantities of Dimension 1
115
Use of Symbol %
116
7.4 Expression of Numbers
117
7.4.1 Formatting Numbers, and the Decimal Marker
117
7.4.2 Expressing the Measurement Uncertainty
118
7.5 Advantages of SI Units
118
7.5.1 Harmonization of Units
118
General Principle
118
7.5.2 Expressing the Values of o and o in Terms of SI Units
120
7.5.3 Expressing Electrostatic and ElectromagneticQuantities in SI Units
121
Charge and Current
121
Potential
123
Electrical Resistance
124
Electrical Capacitance
124
emu of Magnetic Flux
125
Magnetic field Strength (Flux Density)
125
Electric field
125
Inductance
125
7.5.4 SI Units of Quantities in Magnetic Field
126
SI Unit of Magnetic Pole Strength
126
Magnetic Flux Density/Magnetizing Force
126
Intensity of Magnetization
127
7.5.5 Homogenizing of Units of Energy in Heat
129
7.5.6 Coherent System
129
Coherent Derived Unit
129
7.5.7 Well-Defined Units
130
References
130
8 Future Definitions of SI Units
131
8.1 In Terms of Physical Constants
131
8.1.1 Basis of SI Units
131
8.2 From Single Source
132
8.2.1 In Terms of Hydrogen Atom
132
8.2.2 In Terms of Only One Standard (Frequency)
133
8.2.3 In Terms of Fundamental Constants UsingMaxwell Equations
134
8.2.4 A Consistent Set of Fundamental Constants by BIPM
134
8.3 CIPM Recommendation 1 (CI-2005)
135
8.4 A Proposal to Redefine Kilogram, Ampere, Kelvin and Mole
136
8.4.1 Kilogram
136
8.4.2 Ampere
136
8.4.3 Kelvin
136
8.4.4 Mole
137
8.5 The Values of h, e, k and NA
137
8.5.1 Observations
138
8.6 Practical Standards to Realize Kilogram
138
8.6.1 Other Methods of Redefining Kilogram
138
8.6.2 Conclusion in Regard to the Kilogram
139
8.6.3 Measurement Standards
139
Embodiment of Units of Measurements
139
References
140
9 Scientists Associated with Units of Measurements
141
9.1 Scientists Associated with Base Units
141
9.1.1 Lord Kelvin
141
9.1.2 Anders Celsius
142
9.1.3 Andre Marie Ampere
143
9.2 Scientists Associated with Derived Units
144
9.2.1 Sir Isaac Newton
144
9.2.2 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
145
9.2.3 Blaise Pascal
146
9.2.4 James Prescott Joule
147
9.2.5 James Watt
148
9.2.6 Charles Augustin Coulomb
149
9.2.7 Alessandro Volta
151
9.2.8 Michael Faraday
152
9.2.9 Wilhelm Eduard Weber
153
9.2.10 Nickola Tesla
154
9.2.11 Joseph Henry
155
9.2.12 Antoine Henri Becquerel
156
9.2.13 Louis Harold Gray
157
9.2.14 Rolf M. Sievert
158
Sievert Chamber
160
9.2.15 Georg Simon Ohm
160
9.2.16 Werner von Siemens
162
9.3 Some Units Not Named After Any Scientist
163
Appendix A: National Physical laboratory
164
A.1 Metre
164
A.2 Kilogram
164
A.3 Second
165
A.4 Ampere
165
A.5 Kelvin
165
A.6 Candela
166
A.7 Mole
166
A.8 Radiation
166
References
166
Index
167
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